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We included multiple observations from a single study when effects were reported by location or source of exposure and/or separately by sex or other subgroups

Squamous Cell Carcinoma: It is considered the most common type of oral cancer, arising from the squamous cells that line the oral cavity

The effects of smoking on the heart are far-reaching

Types of Samples Cotinine can be measured in several biological specimens: Testing Methods Immunoassays (ELISA, rapid tests) Quick, inexpensive Can be qualitative (yes/no) or semi-quantitative Common in clinical and workplace screening Chromatography-based methods (GC-MS, LC-MS/MS) More accurate and quantitative Can distinguish nicotine from cotinine and other metabolites Used in research or forensic settings Interpretation of Results Cutoff values vary by lab and context